SARAWAK’S permanent forest forms the backbone of one of the world’s most carbon‑rich tropical landscapes. Spanning roughly five to six million hectares of managed forest, these estates not only supply timber for Malaysia’s export market but also store an immense quantity of carbon that plays a decisive role in global climate mitigation efforts.
Understanding how much carbon resides within these lands, how it is measured, and what policy frameworks govern its protection is essential for policymakers, investors and the wider public.
This article draws on the latest government statistics, peer‑reviewed research and international guidelines to present a clear picture of the carbon stock embedded in Sarawak’s permanent forest and to discuss the implications for climate policy and sustainable development.
The Forest Department Sarawak reports that permanent forest areas legally designated for long‑term timber production under state forest licences cover about 5.4 million hectares, representing roughly 77 per cent of the state’s forested land (Sarawak Forest Department, 2023).
These estates are distinct from protected conservation zones and community forests, but they are nonetheless subject to strict forest management plans that mandate sustainable harvest cycles, replanting and protection of high timber value and protected tree species. Because the estates are intended to remain forested for many decades, they represent a stable carbon sink rather than a temporary store that could be rapidly released through clearing.
Estimating the carbon stored in these forests requires a combination of remote sensing, field measurements and allometric modelling. The most widely accepted approach follows the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Tier‑2 methodology, which uses species‑specific wood density values and tree height measurements to convert forest structure into above‑ground biomass (IPCC, 2019).
In Sarawak, recent lidar surveys conducted over three permanent forest blocks in the Miri and Kapit regions revealed an average canopy height of 32 metres and a mean wood density of 0.58 g cm⁻³ for the dominant dipterocarp species.
Applying the allometric equation to these parameters yields an estimated above‑ground biomass of 180 tonnes per hectare, which, when multiplied by the standard carbon fraction of 0.47, corresponds to roughly 85 tonnes of carbon per hectare in living trees.
We sought the consent of Associate Professor Dr Shazali Johari (Universiti Putra Malaysia), who is supporting the Forest Department Sarawak in preparing the Permanent Forest Estate masterplan.
He advised that, “with complete documentation, appropriate allometric equations and accurate mapping, Sarawak’s forest carbon stock can be estimated precisely. Accordingly, we are compiling the required field and spatial data to produce robust carbon stock estimates for Sarawak”.
Below‑ground biomass, comprising roots and associated mycorrhizae, typically represents about 20 per cent of above‑ground biomass in tropical rainforests. Adding this component raises the forest carbon estimate for the forest to approximately 102 tonnes of carbon per hectare.
Dead wood and litter, though variable, add another 10‑15 tonne per hectare on average (FAO, 2022). Aggregating these three pools the living canopy, roots and dead organic material produces a total ecosystem carbon density of roughly 115 tonnes per hectare for the permanent forest estates.
When multiplied by the 5.4 million hectares under permanent management, the total carbon stock approaches 620 million tonnes of carbon, or about 2.27 billion tonnes of carbon‑dioxide equivalent (CO₂e) (Forest Department Sarawak, 2023; IPCC, 2019).
This figure places Sarawak’s permanent forests among the most carbon‑dense managed forests globally. For comparison, the average carbon density of temperate commercial forests is typically between 60 and 80 tonnes of carbon per hectare (FAO, 2022), underscoring the exceptional climate value of tropical dipterocarp ecosystems.
The presence of peat soils in certain low‑lying estate blocks adds a further, often under‑appreciated, carbon component. Peat, formed over millennia from partially decomposed plant material, can store more than 1,500 tonnes of carbon per hectare in deep (< 3 m) deposits.
Although permanent forests are generally situated on mineral soils, a small proportion estimated at 0.4 million hectares overlap with shallow peat formations along the coastal river deltas. Field measurements conducted by the Sarawak Water Resources Department indicate an average peat carbon stock of 340 tonnes per hectare in these marginal zones.
Incorporating this peat contribution raises the overall estate carbon total by an additional 136 million tonnes of carbon, bringing the combined figure to roughly 756 million tonnes of carbon (≈ 2.77 billion t CO₂e).
These carbon stocks are not static; they evolve as trees grow, are harvested, and regenerate. Sustainable forest management plans in Sarawak stipulate rotation periods of 30 to 60 years, depending on species mix and site productivity.
Modelling studies that track carbon dynamics over a full rotation using the Carbon Budget Model of the Canadian Forest Service (CBMF) suggest a net carbon sequestration of about 2 tonnes of carbon per hectare per year during the growth phase, offset partially by emissions from logging operations and processing. Across the entire estate area, this equates to an average annual net sequestration of roughly 10 million tonnes of carbon, or 36.7 million tonnes of CO₂e.
The economic implications of these figures are significant. With voluntary carbon market prices hovering around US 7 per tonne of CO₂e in 2025 (World Bank, 2025), the annual sequestration potential of Sarawak’s permanent estates could generate revenue in the range of US 180-260 million.
Realising these financial benefits, however, depends on robust governance and transparent monitoring. In 2022 the Sarawak Government enacted the Forests (Forest Carbon Activities) Rules, which formally recognises carbon as a tradable forest product and creates a licensing framework for carbon activities within permanent estates.
The ordinance mandates the establishment of a state‑wide carbon registry, periodic remote‑sensing verification and independent third‑party audits to ensure that issued credits represent genuine, additional and permanent emissions reductions (Sarawak State Legislative Assembly, 2022).
As of early 2025, the Sarawak Carbon Registry was in the final stages of implementation, with plans to integrate lidar‑derived biomass maps and peat carbon layers to provide a single, auditable source of carbon data for all estate owners.
Community involvement is another critical pillar. Indigenous peoples in Sarawak hold native customary rights over large swathes of forest, and many permanent estates border or overlay their traditional lands. International best practice, as outlined by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the International Finance Corporation (IFC), requires that any carbon project secure free, prior and informed consent (FPIC) from affected communities and share a portion of the revenue.
Local NGOs such as the Borneo Conservation Trust have documented successful FPIC processes in the Baram River basin, where 15 per cent of credit revenues are earmarked for community development, education and health services (Borneo Conservation Trust, 2023).
Replicating such benefit‑sharing models across all permanent estates would not only enhance social equity but also strengthen the permanence of carbon stocks by fostering local stewardship.
Challenges remain. Peat degradation, driven by drainage for agriculture or oil‑palm expansion, can release stored carbon at rates exceeding 100 tonnes per hectare per year (Global Peatland Initiative, 2022). Although permanent forests are generally managed to avoid such disturbances, illegal encroachment and inadequate enforcement can jeopardise peat carbon.
Moreover, climate‑induced stressors particularly increased frequency of extreme droughts and forest fires pose a risk to both living biomass and peat layers (IPCC, 2022). Strengthening fire‑prevention infrastructure, expanding early‑warning systems and ensuring that forest management plans incorporate climate resilience are therefore essential steps.
Looking ahead, several avenues can enhance the carbon contribution of Sarawak’s permanent forest estates.
First, expanding the use of high‑resolution satellite platforms such as PlanetScope and Sentinel‑2, combined with machine‑learning classification, can provide near‑real‑time monitoring of canopy health, illegal clearing and peat water‑table changes.
Second, integrating carbon accounting into timber concession contracts requiring licensees to report annual biomass removals, replanting success rates and any peat disturbance will create a transparent flow of data into the carbon registry.
Third, encouraging public‑private partnerships that link credit revenue with sustainable timber certification (e.g., FSC) can broaden market access while maintaining forest integrity (Forest Stewardship Council, 2024).
Sarawak’s permanent forests harbour an estimated 750 million tonnes of carbon, equivalent to almost three billion tonnes of CO₂e, making them a cornerstone of Malaysia’s climate mitigation strategy.
The forests’ long‑term tenure, combined with scientifically robust carbon estimation methods and an emerging regulatory framework, position Sarawak to unlock substantial climate finance while sustaining timber production and supporting local livelihoods. Realising this promise will hinge on rigorous monitoring, effective governance, inclusive community engagement and proactive adaptation to climate risks.
By maintaining and enhancing the carbon stock of these forests, Sarawak can both contribute to global efforts to limit warming and demonstrate a model of how managed tropical forests can deliver climate, economic and social benefits in tandem.
